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- Tantric Buddhist ceremonies in Tibet are extremely complex and utilize a vast array of highly specialized ritual objects which were made by skilful craftsmen out of a variety of materials from stone and metal to wood and human bones. Some of these ritual objects are found only in Tibetan Buddhism and are not used in ceremonies of other branches of Buddhism in the Far East.
Among the numerous metal ritual objects are: the thunderbolt symbol (vajra) [62] and bell (ghanta) [63]; prayer wheels [65]; ritual or exorcism daggers (phurbu) [61] and ritual choppers [64]; ritual containers such as butter lamps [68]; holy water ewers and vessels [VI]; incense burners; and musical instruments such as trumpets, flutes, bells and cymbals [76, 81]. Usually these metal ritual objects are covered with various religious motifs and are often inlaid with semi-precious stones.
Prayers (mantras) printed on rolls of paper are often placed inside the prayer wheels, and sometimes they are printed on prayer flags or carved on stones. The most popular mantra is the six-syllable mystic formula, Om man! padme hum (translated as Om, the Jewel in the Lotus, Hum). It is said that repetition of this prayer will bring an end to the cycle of rebirth and provide entrance into Nirvana or absolute salvation.
Human bones were frequently used in the manufacture of ceremonial objects and they played a very important role in Tibetan rituals. This unusual practice was quite intense and distinctively Tibetan. It was believed that the bones were invested with strong magical qualities. Human bones were also often utilized in musical instru�ments (e.g., skulls were used for drums or rattles and thigh bones for trumpets) [82, 83]. Human skulls, often embellished with metal fittings or inlaid with semi-precious stones, were used as goblets and containers for sacrificial libations such as blood, beer, or water. In addition, lamas would sometimes wear elaborate aprons made of carved human bones during certain exorcism ceremonies [73]. It should be emphasized that one of the fundamental teachings of Buddhism is to abstain from the taking of life. Therefore, the bones used in the rituals were obtained in a non�violent manner.
Ritual Objects
Jewellery
Tibetans of both sexes are particularly fond of their jewellery and even the humblest usually have some simple form of personal adornment. Turquoise is the stone most cherished by the Tibetans. One reason for this may be because fine quality turquoise has to be imported from Persia or China, as the native deposits tend to be of poor quality. Coral is also popular for use in jewellery, and it too has to be imported. Both turquoise and coral are used in a variety of ornaments and are set into low-grade silver mounts. Sometimes blue paste and red artificial coral are substituted for the turquoise and coral. Amber beads are used to make up weighty necklaces or attached to the braided coiffures hairdos of women. Male officials once wore on the left ear the prescribed long and narrow pendant adorned with turquoise and a pearl. Amongst the most beautiful Tibetan jewellery are women�s earrings or ear pendants made of turquoise [VII]. Women followed a special Lhasa
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