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- may, our knowledge of Xia jades is still far too incomplete to permit a considered statement on the subject. However, we do know from recent excavations at the Xia level of Erlitou in Yanshi that bronze tools were being used for carving jade1' No doubt excavations in the coming decades will yield a wealth of information to draw on.
It was during the Xia that the position of supreme head of the tribal state became a hereditary one, and the social and economic gap in society between the rulers and the ruled became more apparent. Sometime in the sixteenth century B.C., the Xia was overthrown by what became known as the Shang dynasty. The Shang conquest of the Xia did not mark any sharp break in the emerging culture of China, and the territory continued to be ruled over by here�ditary chiefs called kings, who were succeeded on death by either their brothers or sons.
The Shang nation, a limited domain made up of city-states with nearby settle�ments, was located in the central and lower plains of the Yellow River, and had an economy mainly based on agriculture and hunting. Shang society was organized along feudal lines, with two distinct classes�the warrior nobility and the common people. From excavated Shang sites we know that both bronze and jade artifacts were highly prized by the ruling class in this society. Bronze weapons were a source of power for the aristocracy over the masses, while bronze ritual vessels and jade ceremonial objects were venerated as symbols of wealth, as well as being used for elaborate religious ceremonies to reinforce the social and political authority of the Shang rulers. Ancestor worship was a way of life at this time and the kings made lavish offerings to their god-like predecessors in the hope of gaining fa�vours for the nation, such as abundant harvests and successful battles Jades were important ceremonial items not only in life but also in death, as they were buried with their owners to serve and protect them in the afterlife.
The sophisticated decorative designs that embellish the surface of the Shang jades are an indication of the great artistic heights which were reached by the jade industry of this time. The thousands of excavated Shang jades bear witness to this excellent workmanship. In the beginning, the Shang jade carvers followed the techniques used by the craftsmen of the Neolithic and Xia cultures before them, but the development of more suitable metal tools was a significant help to the Shang lapidary. The methods of grinding, cutting, carving, drilling holes and polishing, as well as creativity of form and use of the material were all quite amaz�ing achievements, considering they did not have the use of modern equipment.
Since there are numerous jade artifacts dating from Shang times, it seems logi�cal to assume the existence of a large group of jade craftsmen working in orga�nized workshops. In 1975 the ruins of a small Shang jade workshop were found near Anyang, the last capital of the Shang. Excavated artifacts show that they were using bronze tools to work jade. Perhaps the only reason why the precious bronze could be cast into jade carving tools was because of the ruling class's great desire to own beautiful jade objects.12
Another aspect, which came to light from the excavated Shang workshop, was that the jade carvers had begun making effective use of the different colours oc�curring in the jade-stone. This method is known as qiaose. Carved animal sculp�tures found in the workshop showed that the carvers had skilfully used the differ�ent colours of the stone to their utmost advantage in representing different parts of the body. An example is a jade turtle carving, in which the craftsmen have clev�erly worked the jade to accommodate the colour pattern of the jade material, so that the eyes, nails and shell, which are in black, are offset by the white body. Pre�14
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